doi:10.61977/ati2024048

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出版历程
- 收稿日期: 2024-08-26
- 录用日期: 2024-09-24
- 网络出版日期: 2024-11-05
- 发布日期: 2024-11-05
- 刊出日期: 2024-11-17

Review of the development of Lunar Laser Ranging

1.
Yunnan Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650216, China
2.
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
3.
College of Mathematics and Physics, Leshan Normal University, Leshan 614000, China
4.
National Institute of Nuclear Physics - Frascati National Labs, Frascati 00044, Italy
5.
Key Laboratory of Space Object and Debris Observation, Purple Mountain Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210023, China

More Information

Corresponding author:
Yuqiang Li: lyq@ynao.ac.cn

摘要

Abstract:
This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the development of Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR), covering key components such as ground observatories, lunar retro-reflectors, and data formats. The paper details the evolution of LLR experiments conducted by some major world-class observatories, with a particular focus on addressing critical issues associated with LLR technology. Additionally, the article highlights the latest advancements in the field, elucidating scientific achievements derived from LLR data, including its contributions to gravitational theory, Earth Orientation Parameters, lunar physics exploration, and lunar librations. The review summarizes new challenges in LLR modeling and concludes with prospects for the future development of LLR.
- Lunar Laser Ranging /
- Retro-reflectors /
- Observatories /
- Gravity

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: We thank Dr. Mikhail V. Vasilyev and Dr. Eleonora I. Yagudina from the Russian Institute of Applied Astronomy (IAA RAS) for providing information on the history of Lunar Laser Ranging at the Crimea Observatory and related developments of the EPM lunar ephemerides. This research is supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2021YFA0715101), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (12033009, 12103087), the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (XDA0350300), the International Partnership Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences (020GJHZ2022034FN), the Yunnan Fundamental Research Projects (202201AU070225, 202301AT070328, 202401AT070141), the Young Talent Project of Yunnan Revitalization Talent Support Program. The work of the European authors is supported by ESA (European Space Agency) under the ESA-INFN contract n. 4000133721/21/NL/CR and by ASI (Agenzia Spaziale Italiana) under the Research Agreement n. 2019-15-HH.0.

Figure 1. Retro-reflector positions on the Moon^[5].

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Figure 2. Apollo 11 laser retro-reflector arrays.

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Figure 3. Apollo 14 laser retro-reflector arrays.

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Figure 4. Apollo 15 laser retro-reflector arrays.

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Figure 5. The distribution of retro-reflectors in the LLR dataset.

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Figure 6. Top panel: Data-Model agreement (line with points) as quantified by the RMS of the post-fit residuals of LLR data with the JPL solar system ephemeris model. Bottom panel: A stacked histogram that displays the annual count of normal point data generated by each LLR station^[10].

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Figure 7. Distribution of LLR session duration.

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Figure 8. Probability density distribution of LLR session duration.

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Figure 9. The distribution of LLR data format in the LLR dataset.

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Figure 10. Looking north along the escarpment at APO, the prominent dome silhouetted against the sky contains the LLR 3.5 m telescope. Behind and to the right of it stands the white, cone-shaped SUNSPOT solar telescope^[11].

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Figure 11. The distribution of lunar retro-reflectors in the APOLLO dataset.

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Figure 12. The distribution of uncertainty in the APOLLO dataset.

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Figure 13. The ACS enclosure houses a laser, which emits a sequence of 1064 nm pulses, each lasting 10 ps, into an optical fiber. The laser repetition-rate controller, specifically the Microsemi 5071A, synchronizes the fiber laser with a cesium frequency standard. A universal counter, the Agilent 53132A, is used to compare the frequency of the cesium clock with that of a clock regulated by Global Positioning System (GPS) data, the TrueTime XL-DC. The dashed line in the diagram indicates temporary and intermittent adjustments made to observe the growing phase discrepancy between the two clocks^[13].

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Figure 14. The distribution of precision of returned photons in the Grasse dataset.

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Figure 15. The distribution of uncertainty in the Grasse dataset for LLR using different laser wavelengths.

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Figure 16. The distribution of number of returned photons in the Grasse dataset using different laser wavelengths.

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Figure 17. Repartition of normal points during the synodic month^[16].

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Figure 18. LLR being performed at YNAO.

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Figure 19. Residuals of the measurement data of the YNAO LLR.

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Table 1 Normal point data for major observatories

Observatory	Observation time	Normal point data
McDonald	1969–2015	7 905
Grasse	1986–2021	18 201
Haleakala	1984–1990	770
Apache Point	2006–2021	3 877
Wettzell	2018–2021	115
Crimean Astrophysical	1973–1981	103
Matera	2003–2021	380
ALL	1969–2021	31 351

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Muccino, M., Montanari, M., Lauretani, R. et al. MoonLIGHT and MPAc: The European Space Agency’s Next-Generation Lunar Laser Retroreflector for NASA’s CLPS/PRISM1A (CP-11) Mission. Remote Sensing, 2025, 17(5): 813.

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